By Octavian-Adrian Negoiță | Institute for the History of Religions, Romanian Academy

Historical Overview

The Patriarchate of Constantinople is one of the most influential and enduring institutions of Eastern Christianity. After Emperor Constantine I (r. 324–37) transferred the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Constantinople, the episcopal seat founded here gradually gained prominence in the Christian world. Its bishop received the title of patriarch in 451 at the Synod of Chalcedon, and soon after Constantinople became one of the Church Seats that formed the Pentarchy along with Jerusalem, Antioch, Rome and Alexandria. The highest forum of decision of the Patriarchate was the permanent synod (synodos endēmousa), presided over by the patriarch. Over the centuries, the patriarchs of Constantinople were involved in the religious debates that shaped the Orthodox faith and its dogma, and forged ecclesiastical and political diplomatic relations with other institutions from both East and West. Besides the dioceses that were under its ecclesiastical control (whose number changed over time), the Patriarchate developed an impressive network of monasteries that were directly under its jurisdiction (stauropegias) and had annual fiscal duties to it. During the early modern period, this network stretched from the Christian East to Russia via the Balkans and the Danubian Principalities. Moreover, the Patriarchate played a crucial role in the political and ecclesiastical affairs of Byzantium and, after its fall, well beyond in the Orthodox world.

In Byzantium, the complex and often complicated relationship between the patriarch and the emperor proved to be quite different from what stipulated the concept of “the Byzantine symphony” (i.e., the harmonious collaboration between the State and the Church) articulated by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–65). Nevertheless, the close connection between the two political actors existed; for instance, the patriarch was deeply involved in the ritual of the emperor’s enthronement, while the other had decisional power in the patriarch’s appointment. But after 1453, when the patriarchate was reinstated by the sultan Mehmet II (r. 1444–46 and 1451–81), the relationship between the Greek Orthodox patriarch and the Ottoman administration became even more complicated, the patriarchs and, by extension, the institution itself had to adapt and configure its policies according to the political context. As a visual representation of the Patriarchate’s duties towards its subjects, it can be noted that since the 1980s the modern flag of both the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople and Mount Athos features a double-headed eagle, which in its right claw holds a cross and in the other an orb, symbolizing the divine and secular authority. Moreover, an emblem presenting the same eagle is today placed above the main entrance of the Patriarchal Cathedral of St George in Istanbul.

Since its beginnings in the fourth century, the Patriarchate’s life intertwined with the history of Constantinople, but the situation changed dramatically in 1204, in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade and the sack of the city by the Latins. The Greek patriarchs followed the Byzantine administration into exile to Nicaea, and installed their headquarters in the premises of the Hagia Sophia Church, from where they conducted the Patriarchate’s affairs. This affected the Patriarchate’s authority among other ecclesiastical institutions, as, for instance, the Serbian Kingdom founded its own autonomous patriarchate at Peć in the fourteenth century. This situation changed in 1261, when Emperor Michael VIII (r. 1261–82) took back the city from the Latins, and the Patriarchate resumed its former location and gained substantial power. Among the most prominent ecclesiastical events that took place during the last centuries of Byzantium and involved the Patriarchate and its leaders are the Union of the Churches and the Hesychast controversy. In 1274, a Byzantine delegation participated at the Second Council of Lyon, which was convened by Pope Gregory X (c. 1210–76) after he received assurances from the emperor Michael VIII himself that the Byzantines decided to unite with the Church of Rome in order to stop any anti-Byzantine initiative that might have been initiated by a Western power. Later, due to the Ottoman threat over the Byzantine territories, the Greek Church turned again towards Rome for military and financial aid, for which discussed again the possibility of a union between the two Churches at the Council of Ferrara-Florence (1438–39), whose decisions had deep repercussions within the Orthodox world until modern times. Lastly, the adoption of Hesychasm promoted by the Archbishop of Thessaloniki Gregory Palamas (1296–1359) in the fourteenth century as the official dogma of the Orthodox Church put an end to a period of theological controversies that divided the Byzantine society during the Palaiologan period.

In 1453, Constantinople fell under the Ottomans, but the Patriarchate continued its existence, being subsequently restored by Sultan Mehmet II, who appointed the Greek monk Georgios Gennadios II Scholarios (c. 1400–73) as patriarch. The reasons for this political decision are diverse: the Sultan’s desire to repopulate Constantinople and transform it into his capital city, and that Scholarios was the leader of the Orthodox anti-Latin party that was active in Constantinople during the last years of Byzantium, which made him the ideal candidate given the sultan’s plans for Europe. Scholarios appointment was ratified through an official document (berat), which stipulated his prerogatives (i.e., authority over the clergy, management of the Church’s properties, application of the Byzantine law to the members of the Greek Orthodox group, and the right to collect taxes) that are encountered also in the appointment diplomas of the future patriarchs. Although the Patriarchate initially received the Church of the Holy Apostles as headquarters after 1453, the situation changed quickly, as the Pammakaristos Church (Fethiye Camii since 1591) took first its place and then the Church of Saint George from the Phanar neighborhood became the patriarch’s residence, and, at the same time, the center of the Greek Orthodox elites of Constantinople. In the eyes of the Ottoman administration, the status of the patriarch was that of an Ottoman prelate, bestowed with authority over the Greek Orthodox community (tā’ife) and was in charge of collecting taxes (mültezim) for the Porte. This status quo also affected the succession and election of patriarchs. The competing claims over bishops and metropolitans backed by various Christian and non-Christian groups, alongside the financial burdens that overwhelmed both Christian laymen and clergy, but agreed with the Ottoman policies, very often changed the leadership in the Patriarchate.

Besides the political instability, the patriarchs of Constantinople continued to engage in ecclesiastical relations with the Catholic and Protestant West (e.g., the theological correspondence between the Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II and the Tübingen theologians), as well as with the Eastern Patriarchates. Moreover, renowned monastic communities, such as Mount Athos and Sinai remained in a constant connection with the Patriarchate, although their history witnessed also episodes of tension between the patriarchs and the monastic leaders (e.g. the Kollyvades movement that begun in Athos during the second half of the eighteenth century). In the Balkans and the Danubian Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, the patriarchs of Constantinople managed to cast a significant influence, being involved in the election of metropolitans and the religious life of the Orthodox world by developing close relations with the voivodes. For instance, in 1359 Patriarch Kallistos I (1350–53 and 1355–63) appointed the Greek monk Yakinthos of Vicina (1359–72) as the first metropolitan of Ungro-Wallachia, while in 1645, at the request of the patriarch, Lord of Moldavia Basil Lupu (r. 1634–53) corresponded with the Russian Tzar Mihail Fedorovici (r. 1613–45) whom he asked for financial aid to help the Patriarchate’s financial situation. Moreover, many patriarchs left a distinctive mark on the religious life and the intellectual history of Eastern Christian communities from the Eastern Mediterranean and Europe through their works, printing activities, preaching, learning, and impressive libraries. During the Ottoman period, the Patriarchal Academy of Phanar became a crucial place of learning that instructed future illustrious members of the Church or the Phanariot families. It is here where the neo-Aristotelian philosopher Theophilos Korydallefs (1563–1646), appointed director of the Academy by the notorious Patriarch Kyrillos Loukaris (1572–1638), developed his neo-Aristotelian philosophical method of interpretation, known as Korydalism. As such, the Patriarchate of Constantinople has always played a vital role in the life of the Orthodox communities and the articulation of their beliefs along the centuries.

Key Issues and Debates

Although the studies on the Patriarchate of Constantinople during the Byzantine and Ottoman rules have recently entered into a new phase directed towards reconsidering established sources and initiating discussions on new archival materials, there are many aspects of its cross-cultural and religious history that are yet to be fully addressed. First, the Byzantine phase has received substantial attention from scholars until now compared to the period when the patriarchate functioned under the Ottoman rule, which clearly reflects in the available bibliography. Secondly, new facets of the institutional relations between the Patriarchate and the governing institutions of the Byzantine State and the Ottoman Porte, respectively, require further investigations by turning towards already consecrated sources or exploring new archival materials. This can also apply to the diplomatic and ecclesiastical relations of the Patriarchate with other Christian institutions and religious groups (i.e., Catholics, Protestants, and Eastern Christians of various traditions) that in turn can offer exciting episodes of historical and cultural entanglements in time and space. The Ottoman archives are not yet fully explored, and sources in Greek, Arabic, Slavonic, or other languages of Eastern Christianity, stored in repositories throughout the Christian East, are still awaiting their editors. In order to grasp the complete picture of the Patriarchate’s political and ecclesiastical affairs alongside its cultural contributions to the life of Eastern Christian communities, the academic discussions have to turn also towards a wide array of literary sources in manuscript or printed editions, such as theological treatises, hagiography, chronicles or letters, and not only to the official chancellery documents.

A comprehensive analysis of the vast network of monasteries (stauropegias) under the jurisdiction of the patriarchate is a matter of paramount importance for understanding its political influence and financial history during late Byzantium and early modern times. In their turn, these stauropegias had their own metochia (monasteries and sketes dependent on them), which makes the history of the ecclesiastical network even more complex and fascinating. All these institutions assured the Patriarchate annual revenues, in money or livestock. Along with the Ottoman conquests during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the Orthodox Greek patriarchs turned their attention towards the Balkan areas for their network of stauropegias and, starting with the sixteenth century onwards, this network expanded to Wallachia and Moldavia. Mapping out these networks will enhance our understanding of the ecclesiastical power relations of the Patriarchate of Constantinople on a more global scale, which involves the Eastern Patriarchates, Mount Athos and Sinai. It will also contribute to a better picture of the movement of people, finances and goods in various historical, social and cultural contexts.

The historiography on the Patriarchate still lacks detailed studies and monographs on the patriarchs. If the Byzantine phase benefited of more attention in this regard, for the period of the Ottoman rule only few such analysis exist. Good examples are the two monographs, first on Patriarch Gennadios II Scholarios and second on Patriarch Kyrillos Loukaris, respectively, are the exception. However, the achievements and activities of patriarchs should not constitute the only focus of scholars to understand the Patriarchate’s intricate history, but they should turn their attention to other prelates or people affiliated with the institution that shaped its existence along the centuries. For instance, the Neo-Aristotelian philosopher and director of the Patriarchal Academy, Theophilos Korydallefs has always been an enigmatic and intriguing figure for scholars, and the renowned official of the patriarchate and famous Phanariot bibliophile Nikolaos Karatzas has been a prominent figure of the patriarchal chancellery, and recently attracted much scholarly attention for his erudite activities. Lastly, detailed investigations based on new archival material concerning the inter-institutional relations between the Eastern Patriarchates is a desideratum.

Further Reading

The bibliography on the Patriarchate of Constantinople during the Byzantine period and early modern times is quite extensive. The list below is, by no means, complete.

Apostolopoulos, Dimitris and Machi Paizi-Apostolopoulos (eds.). Les regestes des actes du Patriarcat de Constantinople. Vol. 1: Les regestes de 1454 à 1498. Athens: Fondation Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique, Institut de Recherches Historiques, 2013.

Paizi-Apostolopoulos, Machi, Youli Evangelou, and Dimitris Apostolopoulos (eds.). Επίσημα κείμενα του Πατριαρχείου Κωνσταντινουπόλεως [Official Documents of the Patriarchate of Constantinople]. Vol. 2: Τα σωζόμενα από την περίοδο 1498-1565 [Surviving Texts from the period 1498-1565]. Athens: Fondation Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique, Institut de Recherches Historiques, 2021.

These volumes offer official documents from the period subsequent to the fall of Constantinople, preserved in the patriarchal register.

Blanchet, Marie-Hélène. Georges-Gennadios Scholarios (vers 1400-vers 1472). Un intellectuel orthodoxe face à la disparition de l’Empire byzantine. Paris: Institut français d’études byzantines, 2008.

This is the latest monograph on Patriarch Gennadios Scholarios. Blanchet investigates both Scholarios’ patriarchate under Mehmet II and his career as a Byzantine intellectual and monk involved in the Orthodox-Latin controversies subsequent to the Council of Ferrara-Florence.

Blanchet, Marie-Hélène, Marie-Hélène Congourdeau and Dan Ioan Mureșan (eds.). Le Patriarcat Œcumenique de Constantinople et Byzance hors frontières (1204–1586). Actes de la table ronde organisée dans le cadre du 22e Congrès International des Études Byzantines, Sofia, 22–27 août 2011. Paris: Centre d’Études Byzantines, Néo-helléniques et Sud-Est Européennes, École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, 2014.

In this collection of essays, the contributors discuss various aspects regarding the ecclesiastical policies and diplomacy during the Byzantine and Ottoman periods.

Çolak, Hasan, Elif Bayraktar-Tellan. The Orthodox Church as an Ottoman Institution: A Study of Early Modern Patriarchal Berats. Istanbul: The Isis Press, 2019.

The authors offer editions of the appointment diplomas (berāts) ratified by the Ottoman sultans for the Greek Orthodox patriarchs of Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria, which are instrumental in conceptualizing the relations between the Ottoman administration and these ecclesiastical institutions.

Darrouzès, Jean, Venance Grumel, and Vitalien Laurent (ed.). Les regestes des actes du Patriarcat de Constantinople. Vol. 1: Les Actes des patriarches. 7 Fasc. Paris: Institut Français d’Études Byzantines, 1972–91.

This collection official documents from the Patriarchate of Constantinople during the Byzantine period (some which are today lost).

Gastgeber, Christian, Ekaterini Mitsiou, Johannes Preiser-Kapeller, and Vratislav Zervan (eds.). A Companion to the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2021.

This companion is the only complete overview over the Patriarchate of Constantinople from its emergence until its reinstalment by Sultan Mehmet II, covering aspects about its history, cultural input, administration and diplomatic relations.

Hering, Gunnar. Ökumenisches Patriarchat und europäische Politik, 1620–1638. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1968.

This classical monograph analyzes the diplomatic and ecclesiastical relations between the Patriarchate of Constantinople and the European polities.

Janin, Raymond. La géographie ecclésiastique de l’Empire Byzantine. Première partie: Le siège de Constantinople et le Patriarcat Œcuménique. Tome 3: Les églises et les monastères. Paris: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1969.

This compendium offers comprehensive overviews on the churches and monasteries under the authority of the Patriarchate of Constantinople by providing detailed discussions over their history, patrons, and localization.

Konortas, Paraskevas. “Les Rapports juridiques et politiques entre le patriarcat orthodoxe de Constantinople et l’administration ottomane de 1453 à 1600 (d’après les documents grecs et ottomans).” 2 vols. PhD Thesis, Paris: Universite Paris I Pantheon – Sorbonne, 1985.

This doctoral dissertation analyzes the reestablishment of the Patriarchate of Constantinople under the Ottomans and its subsequent relations with the Porte, offering a thorough discussion based on both Greek and Ottoman contemporary sources.

Le Patriarcat Œcuménique de Constantinople aux XIVe–XVIe siècles: rupture et continuité. Actes du colloque international Rome, 5-6-7 décembre 2005. Paris: Centre d’études byzantines, néo-helléniques et sud-est européennes, Écoles des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, 2007.

The contributions presented in this volume discuss aspects of ecclesiastical policies and institutional status of the Patriarchate of Constantinople in a period of transition from the Byzantine rule to the Ottoman governance.

Olar, Ovidiu-Victor. La boutique de Théophile. Les relations du patriarche de Constantinople Kyrillos Loukaris (1570–1638) avec la Réforme. Paris: Centre d’études byzantines, néo-helléniques et sud-est européennes, École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, 2019.

This is the most recent monograph on the notorious Patriarch Kyrillos Loukaris in which the author explores the religious, political and cultural contexts that shaped the patriarch’s intellectual profile.

Papademetriou, Tom. Render unto the Sultan. Power, Authority, and the Greek Orthodox Church in the Early Ottoman Centuries. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.

This book investigates the situation of the Patriarchate of Constantinople under the Ottomans and tackles the traditional paradigms about the perception of the patriarch and the institution itself by the Ottoman administration.

Papazoglou, Georgios. Ὁ λόγιος Φαναριώτης Νικόλαος Καρατζᾶς καὶ ἡ βιβλιοθήκη τῶν χειρογράφων κωδίκων του (1705 ci.–1787). [The Learned Phanariot Nikolaos Karatzas and His Library of Manuscript Codices]. 2 vols. Thessaloniki: Oikos K. & M. Ant. Stamouli, 2016–19.

In his monograph, Papazoglou explores the life and literary legacy of the Phanariot intellectual Nikolaos Karatzas, who served as logothetēs tou genikou of the Patriarchate of Constantinople and owned one of the most impressive private libraries of South-East Europe.

Runciman, Steven. The Great Church in Captivity. A Study of the Patriarchate of Constantinople from the Eve of the Turkish Conquest to the Greek War of Independence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.

This is the classical monograph on the history of the Patriarchate of Constantinople under the Turkish domination. Runciman articulates here the concept of “the Great Church in Captivity” that dominated for a long time the academic discussions on the matter; recently, scholars challenged many of his theories about the Patriarchate.

Tsourkas, Cléobule. Les débuts de l’enseignement philosohique et de la libre pensée dans les Balkans. La vie et l’oeuvre de Théophile Corydalée (1563–1646), Bucharest, 1948.

This book focuses on the contributions to Aristotelian philosophy by the Athenian intellectual Theophilos Korydalefs, professor at the Patriarchal Academy of Constantinople and his influence on the culture and philosophical thinking of East and South-East Europe.

Zachariadou, Elisabeth A. Δέκα τουρκικά έγγραφα για την Μεγάλη Εκκλησία (1483–1567) [Ten Turkish Documents about the Great Church]. Athens: Institute of Byzantine Studies, 1996.

Zachariadou offers a detailed discussion about the institutional situation of the Patriarchate of Constantinople during the first phase of Ottoman rule by addressing ten Ottoman documents, which are offered in original Turkish and modern Greek translation.

This contribution was sponsored by the Mary Jaharis Center for Byzantine Art and Culture at Hellenic College Holy Cross.