By Viktor Filas | Khortytsia National Academy, Zaporizhzhia, Ukraine
Description
The Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi (Akkerman) Fortress now in Ukraine, which is in a relatively good state of preservation, is a unique monument of late medieval military engineering. It was built in the 13th century on the rocky shore of the Dnister Estuary. The establishment of the fortress is rooted in both foreign policy and military contexts. It emerged as a crucial outpost for the principality of Moldavia in the Danube-Dnister interfluve during the 15th and 16th centuries. Equally significant was the construction of a stone fortress to protect the nearby port on Cape Akkerman, which had played a vital role since the time of the Genoese presence in the Black Sea region (mid-13th century to the 15th century).
The remarkable importance of Bilhorod Fortress in the history of fortification architecture is due to its foundation on the ideas and practices of two main architectural styles: Moldavian and Ottoman. The Moldavian tradition prominently features Transylvanian-Gothic elements, while the Ottoman tradition incorporates Byzantine fortification elements. The presence of the first one can be explained by the consolidation of Moldavian power over the city in the 15th century, while the second one by the construction initiatives of Sultan Bayezid II (r. 1447–1512) after his capture of the city. It is likely that Byzantine engineers participated in the design of the fortress. Although the Ottomans actively invited European engineers to build and rebuilt fortresses in the empire, their direct impact on Bilhorod Fortress has not been confirmed.
Significance
Bilhorod Fortress derives its layout from Byzantine models. The layout of the fortress, in the form of a regular isosceles triangle, resembles the plan of the Byzantine Capital, Constantinople. Indeed, the fortress plan clearly reveals a compositional core in the form of a regular isosceles triangle (“Constantinopolitan type”), with the defensive wall of the southern front of the Civil Court serving as its base and the citadel as its apex.
The initial construction likely dates to the reign of the Moldavian prince Alexander the Good (r. 1400–32). The most plausible reasons for founding the fortress include the need to counter the increasing Ottoman military threat in the region, the threat of a Lithuanian invasion in the vulnerable lower reaches of the Dniester River, and a desire to strengthen the authority of the Moldavian ruler. During the early decades of the fifteenth century, the citadel – the earliest element in the current system of fortifications – was most likely built. Architectural and structural features suggest that the project was executed urgently at the behest of its patron. In 1440, a dividing wall was constructed based on previous fortifications that protected the castle from the south, marking the completion of the fortress. This occurred with support from the Moldavian ruler Stephen II (r. 1410–47).
After successfully withstanding the siege of the Ottoman army in 1454, the Moldavian authorities initiated the largest-scale construction project in the history of Bilhorod Fortress. This comprehensive redevelopment resulted in the formation of the Civil Courtyard Square. The entire defense complex was surrounded by a deep defensive ditch, and the fortress’s defenses were bolstered with new towers and walls. It is likely that during this period, a chapel and burial ground were established in the northern part of the Civil Courtyard Square. This Christian religious building likely served as the center of residential development, located on the highest point of the Civil Courtyard area. These construction works began shortly after 1455 and were completed by the end of the decade.
On the initiative of the Moldavian ruler Stephen III the Great (r. 1457–1504), the main gate tower (Tower No. 6) was reinforced in 1476. During his reign, the second tier of the old gate tower was rebuilt, and powerful side walls were added to its sides and facade. This modernization occurred in the context of the increased Ottoman expansion toward the southern borders of the Moldavian principality in an effort to control the region.
In 1484, Ottoman troops conquered Bilhorod Fortress. Following the capture, the Ottoman authorities undertook extensive modernization efforts. Five new towers were erected, along with polygonal towers along the outer perimeter of the Civic Courtyard Square. On the site of the destroyed church in this area of the fortification, the square-plan mosque of Bayezid II was erected. In the southeastern and southwestern towers of the citadel, the third tier was completely rebuilt to accommodate artillery. The Kiliia Gate was also modernized, with the addition of a third tier above it.
Subsequently, in the period between the 16th and 18th centuries, Bilhorod Fortress underwent numerous renovations and upgrades. However, these changes did not alter the general layout of the defensive complex but only partially affected the external appearance of several structures. This approach is understandable given the broader military-political context. Throughout the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire was gradually advancing into Central Europe, and fortresses located deeper within its territory were not prioritized. The Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi, who visited Bilhorod Fortress in the 1650s and provided a detailed description of the complex and its history, did not mention any significant reconstruction, except for the restoration of the walls immediately after the siege of 1484 and the repeated efforts to clean the moat. According to Çelebi, it was the deep ditch, rather than the walls, that rendered the fortress impenetrable.
According to the Bucharest Peace Treaty of 1812, the lands of Lower Transnistria, including the fortresses of Akkerman (and others, including Tigina, Kiliya, Khotin, and Izmail), were ceded to the Russian Empire. Russian engineers proposed their own methods for strengthening the fortress, which primarily involved constructing a glacis and a covered path, along with minor additions to the inner base of the walls in the southern and eastern sections of the Civil Courtyard Square. Soon after the Russian empire reached the Danube River, the Bilhorod-Dnister Fortress lost its military and strategic significance, which spared it from complete destruction following the Russian Empire’s defeat in the Crimean War and the signing of the Paris Peace Treaty in March 1856.
Conducting archaeological research at Bilhorod Fortress is currently an urgent priority. This work could help clarify the date when construction began and determine the sequence of building stages, as well as assess the impact of various architectural centers and traditions on the design of the fortress. Particular emphasis should be placed on examining the potential impact of Western European models, which could provide valuable insights into the region’s cultural interactions and negotiations. Additionally, immediate preservation efforts are essential due to the fortress’s exposure to natural threats, such as soil creep from the Dnister Estuary, which continues to erode the structure.
Further Reading
Krasnozhon, Andrei. Krepost' Belgorod (Akkerman) na Dnestre: istoriya stroitel'stva [Belgorod fortress (Akkerman) on Dnister: history of construction]. Kishinev, 2012.
The monograph provides a comprehensive examination of all documentary sources on the history of the Bilhorod (Akkerman) Fortress, supplemented by the author's extensive field research of the fortress walls and towers. The study identifies seven main periods in the fortress's construction history, beginning with the establishment of the old castle (citadel) in the early 15th century and culminating in the Ottoman reconstruction at the end of the 18th century, which significantly altered its appearance.
Krasnozhon, Andrei. Krepost' Belgorod (Akkerman) na Dnestre: v istoricheskikh izobrazheniyakh [Belgorod fortress (Akkerman) on Dnister: in historical images]. Kishinev, 2016.
The album contains approximately 400 drawings, engravings, and photographs sourced from the archives of 17 academic and scientific institutions in Romania, Moldova, Ukraine, and Russia. These images depict the lost appearance of the fortress over the past 250 years (from 1770 onwards). The majority of these images are being introduced into scholarly discourse for the first time.
Shlapak, Mar'yana. Belgorod-Dnestrovskaya krepost' (issledovanie srednevekovogo oboronnogo zodchestva) [Belgorod-Dniestrovskaya fortress (study of medieval defensive architecture)]. Kishinev, 2001.
In this monograph, the Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi fortified complex is highlighted as the most representative monument of defensive architecture in medieval Moldova and one of the most significant military architectural sites in modern Ukraine. The author asserts that due to its construction and architectural features, it ranks among the most outstanding fortifications of medieval Europe.
Bruyako, Igor'. "Sapozhnikov, Igor'. Belgorod-Dnestrovskaya krepost' kak pamyatnik voenno-inzhenernogo iskusstva (osnovnye etapy istorii kontsa XІV – nachala XIX vv.)" [Belgorod-Dniester Fortress as a monument of military engineering art (the main stages of the history of the late 14th – early 19th centuries)]. Stratum Plus 5 (2000): 4443–51.
The article explores the history of the Bilhorod-Dnistrovskiy (Akkerman) fortress, focusing on its military fortifications. Built by Moldavian builders in the 1470s, the fortress was outdated upon completion. Under Ottoman rule (1484–1806), it saw minor reconstructions. In 1793, French engineer Cauffer suggested renovations, partially implemented. Russian engineers made further changes in 1813–14 but these had little impact on its appearance and defense.
This contribution was sponsored through the project HER-UKR - Challenges and Opportunities for EU Heritage Diplomacy in Ukraine.
